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European-Russian Space Cooperation. From de Gaulle to ExoMars – Book Review

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This review first appeared in The Space Review on 30 August 2021.

Title European-Russian Space Cooperation
Author Brian Harvey
Publisher Springer Praxis Books

The Cold War was primarily the story of the USSR and the USA and their respective allies.  By chronicling in meticulous detail European-Russian Space cooperation, Brian Harvey has uncovered a strategic relationship between France and the USSR that modulated the larger USSR/USA Cold War relationship that dominated geopolitics between the end of WW2 and demise of the USSR in 1991. It is not just about historical events. The final chapter illustrates the same geopolitical forces are at work shaping international cooperation in space today with the turbulent story of ExoMars.

Harvey starts the first chapter, as the title would dictate with de Gaulle arriving in Moscow in June 1966 as President of France. De Gaulle’s connections with Russia started back in WW1 as a POW in Germany alongside Mikhail Tukhachevsky who later became one of Stalin’s marshals. De Gaulle’s first visit to Moscow was in 1944 then representing the Free French movement. In addition to this deep-rooted connection with Russia, de Gaulle considered the “Special Relationship” between UK and USA as subservient and ensured France did not follow. Re-elected in 1965, de Gaulle used his fresh mandate to reassert French independence and withdrew France from NATO command in March 1966 just three months before his arrival in Moscow. These conditions set the path for France and later Europe on their unique collaboration in space that persist to this day.

The book traces collaborative space projects between USSR/Russia with Britain (Jodrell Bank tracking and communication), Germany and its specialisation in X-ray astronomy (Spectre RG project), Italy spacecraft manufacture (most recently ExoMars – Trace Gas Orbiter and lander Schiaparelli) and the several formerly Eastern bloc countries (i.e. Hungary, Romania, Poland, Czechoslovakia and East Germany) which took advantage of the existing cultural connections with scientific and industrial institutions in the Soviet Union where the scientist and engineers spoke Russian.

Reminiscent of Gagarin’ visit to the UK five years earlier, de Gaulle‘s 1966 USSR visit was marked not only by the motorcycle escort and hordes of public that lined

Gaulle’s route. A visit to Baikonur (first by a representative of the west) and a hotline by between the Kremlin and the Elysée palace illustrated that both sides were committed to a deep and long relationship.

The agreement to collaborate in space was signed on the 30 June 1966. Half a century later, its success can perhaps be traced to the fact that it was signed alongside another for scientific, technical, and economic cooperation. This broader and deeper commitment facilitated establishing multiple complex projects between peoples from differing cultures, politics, and languages. It was a “miracle that the Franco-Russian cooperation survived this test” says the author. It survived because key ingredients were established at the outset including annual reunions, long term high-level political support, patience, mutual good-will and picking the right kind of projects to work on.

The book’s 400 pages deals with collaboration in scientific, industrial, human spaceflight and ExoMars in six chapters. The story of collaboration is largely a USSR-European programmes but led and facilitated by France. In parallel, many of the same European countries were engaged in separate collaborative projects with the USA too. With some exceptions, there was largely no cooperation in space between the USA and USSR. 

The first major project between the west and USSR was the launch of France’s satellite SRET in 1970 followed by a jointly produced satellite Aureole 1 in December 1971. That success secured additional projects with other European countries. A series of satellites for scientific exploration of the Sun first with joint French series of satellites called Prognoz and later Interkosmos jointly with Sweden. Investigations in Biology (BION – 1973 and 2013) and material science (Foton – 1985 and 2014), Comet, Moon and planetary exploration especially Venus and Mars along with space-based observatories Astron, Kvant, Gamma, Granat and Spektr.

Collaboration allowed European astronauts to get in to space on USSR rockets whereas politics and cost prevented access via USA’s space shuttle just as it became operational. In the 1970s several astronauts from the Warsaw pact countries got a ride to Salyut 6.  Jean-Loup Chrétien from France was the first western to arrive on Salyut 7 in 1982 and with a second flight 1988. German, Austrian, and British astronauts followed. The Russian dominance in human spaceflight was highlighted once the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011. From then to 2020 the Russian Soyuz was the only transport to the space station for American astronauts. The author explores almost forgotten four projects for European human spaceflight projects: Hermes, Mir 1.5, Kliper and ACTS, which never came to pass. If they had Europe today would have a “much stronger role in human spaceflight”. Instead, Europe remains devoid of human rated launch vehicle.

Industrial cooperation driven predominantly by commercial and economic interests proved to be the most challenging. Those problems are being addressed today through market competition by the emerging private space sector. Then the launch of communication satellites was particularly lucrative with only the USSR and USA having a foothold from the outset. Europe’s entry with Ariane was made particularly difficult by the USA “refusing to sell fuel for it”. Obstacles and sanctions from Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom) or International Traffic in Arms Regulation. The author highlights the role of the little known CoCom. Whereas ITAR was established to maintain American interests in the USA, CoCom (based in an annexe of the USA embassy in Paris) appears to do the same in the  heart of Europe.

Despite the hurdles, Europe and Russia have benefited from decades of cooperation in space.  European spacecraft and astronauts continue to be launched by Soyuz; European scientific instruments have explored the solar system courtesy of USSR/Russian spacecraft. The USSR/Russia benefited from European expertise in designing, building operating instruments for space and planetary exploration. USSR then Russia learnt project management approach from Europeans. The Soyuz launch facilities in Kourou, close to the equator is a particularly tangible outcome for Russia, a direct product of decades of Franco-Russian cooperation.

Europe has an admirable history of Interplanetary exploration. The book highlights the central role of Russian launchers in making possible ESA’s Mars Express and Venus Express mission. Soyuz launches have also facilitated Europe’s flagship projects of Copernicus and Galileo. In the final chapter the book outlines the long, convoluted, and costly journey of realising ExoMars. The project has been through several iterations of design and planning to arrive at the orbiter, lander, rover, and sample return objectives. This is one example of international cooperation that now includes the USA too.

This is probably the first English language analysis of the individuals, institutions and early space projects that would eventually lead not just France but Europe to its status as a leader in designing, building and operating complex space infrastructure. In the first chapter, “Early Days” the author refers to John F. Kennedy’s little-known but perhaps most powerful speech on 10 June 1963, Strategy for Peace. It would have been interesting to see the author’s assessment on how collaboration in space has cultivated peace on Earth.

Episode 82: Jaxa and International Collaboration with Professor Fujimoto Masaki

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Prof. Fujimoto Masaki
Prof. Fujimoto Masaki. Credit author

 Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) was founded in 2003 by the merger of three existing organisations and has an annual budget of around two billion USD. It has a remit for research and development of technology, space exploration and supporting human spaceflight aboard the ISS through collaboration with the European Space Agency. This episode is available in audio and video below.

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In 2003 JAXA launched Hayabusa-1 to explore the asteroid Itokawa. It arrived at Itokawa in 2005 and returned to the Earth with a tiny sample in 2010.  In 2014, Jaxa launched Hayabusa-2 to explore asteroid Ryugu.  Hayabusa2 arrived ta Ryugu on 27 June 2018 and will remain in Ryugu orbit until 2019. It will collect 3 discrete samples (between 0.1g and 1g in each case), store them in separate sealed containers on board for return to Earth in December 2020 in the Woomera test range in Australia.

  • All four rovers. Credit ESA
  • Hayabusu 2 and Ryugu. Credit ESA
  • silhouette of Hayabusa2 on Ryugu. Credit JAXA

Hyabusa2 has four rovers.

  • MINERVA-II-1 contains two rovers, Rover-1A and Rover-1B was deployed on 21 September 2018.
  • Mascot – a rover developed by the German and French space agencies. Deployed on 3rd October 2018.
  • The MINERVA-II-2 contains ROVER-2, a payload developed by several universities in Japan. Planned for deployment in July 2019.

JAXA is also considering

  1. 1 The launch of the world’s smallest lunar lander  intended to be launched on NASA’s Space Launch Systems in the 2020s.
  2. Smart Lander for Investigating the Moon (SLIM) will demonstrate the technology of precision landing. 
  3. Selene-R – a tentative joint JAXA/ISRO Moon mission to soft-land a rover on the Moon. Jaxa would supply the rover and ISRO the lander.
  4. MMX – Martian Moons Exploration. A martian sample return mission. Only possible with international collaboration (US, France, Germany). To be launched around the 2024 timeline. Following a period of 3-years at Mars, it will return to Earth with a sample from Phobos in 2029. 
Prof. Fujimoto Masaki. Credit Author

Episode 78: ISRO’s early Earth Observation Cameras with former chairman Mr Kiran Kumar

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Dr Kiran Kumar. Credit ISRO

Mr Kiran Kumar studied physics, physical engineering and electronics in educational institutions in India including the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) in Bangalore. He specialised in electro-optical imaging systems and in 1975 was recruited by Dr Yash Pal (one of a few key individuals who played a pivotal role in the early days of India’s space programme) to ISRO’s Space Application Centre in Ahmedabad.

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During the 1970’s, state of the art imaging sensor consisted of photodiodes, vidicon tubes and photomultipliers. It was these analogue devices that he started working with before moving on to modern solid state devices such as  Charged Couple Devices (CCDs). He contributed to imaging systems in India’s first remote sensing satellite (Bhaskara-1) and deep space missions to the Moon (Chandrayaan-1) and Mars (Mars Orbiter Mission).

During the 1970’s, state of the art imaging sensor consisted of photodiodes, vidicon tubes and photomultipliers. It was these analogue devices that he started working with before moving on to modern solid state devices such as  Charged Couple Devices (CCDs). He contributed to imaging systems in India’s first remote sensing satellite (Bhaskara-1) and deep space missions to the Moon (Chandrayaan-1) and Mars (Mars Orbiter Mission).

A few highlights from the interview recorded on 22 September 2018

  • Had considered medicine as a career but a combination of not meeting the age criteria by 22 days and National College in Bangalore initiating a new Physics Honours course in 1968, he chose Physics.
  • Strongly influenced by physicist and ardent rationalist  Dr.H.Narasimhaiah who later became the vice-chancellor of Bangalore University
  • Has a clear memory of Gagarin’s spaceflight in 1961 and Apollo 11 landing on the Moon in 1969.
  • Graduated in 1971, the same year that Vikram Sarabhai died. He never saw or met him.
  • In 1975, he was working on his Mtec at the IISc when India’s first satellite, Aryabhata was launched. He worked on Bhaskara – initially known as Satellite for Earth Observation
  • In the mid-1970s only four metropolitan areas in India had television reception. The SITE programme illustrated the benefits of satellite communication in delivering education to small rural communities across India.
  • During 1995-1999 – ISRO had the highest spatial resolution imaging capability from space in the civilian domain.
  • Using Commercial Off the Shelf products (or parts from COTS product) is not unusual for experimental space missions.
  • Moving into the Chairman’s role was not onerous. Previous experience as director of an ISRO centre provided the required experience.

Although Kiran Kumar stood down from the chairman’s role in January 2018, he remains active within ISRO.

Book Review – From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey

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RedplanetTitle: From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey
Publisher: Harper Collins India
Author: ISRO
Chief Editor: P.V. Manoranjan Rao

This book is probably the most detailed and most comprehensive account of how the Indian Space Program was founded and has developed since 1963.   There is no single narrative that flows from the beginning to the end. Instead this is a compendium of  53 individual articles in 8 sections from 50 different contributors written at different times. This stand-alone chapter approach allows the reader to hop between sections of interest  in any order. The varying styles and the occasional repetition may distract but can also reinforce.

Many of the key individuals who played a central role in the development of the Indian Space program are no longer around, but many are and they have shared their first hand recollections in this pages. Professor UR Rao who lead the team that designed and built ISRO’s first satellite, Kiran Kumar helped develop high resolution imaging system from space, Yash Pal who was present at the start and helped realise Sarabhai’s vision of using space to drive social change and Professor Jacques Blamont who provided the payload for the first rocket launched on 21st November 1963 and sustained the Indo-French collaboration for many years.

This is probably the first book that comprehensively captures the range of ISRO achievements.  Although rockets and satellites get the limelight, the key foundations that enable those developments do not. For example section 6.1. Space and Industry Interface, emphasis the underlying infrastructure with the words “tool design and fabrication is a technology by itself”.  The same chapter details the ISRO’s extensive connections with private Indian industry that have contributed to ISRO’s success.

Although ISRO is a department of the government, several of the writers refer to the “ISRO Culture” as a differentiator that has driven its success. It is has multiple manifestations. The origins of ISRO (as INCOSPAR) and its one page constitution as drafted by Homi Bhabha provided for a streamlined decision making, putting scientists and engineers (rather than politicians and administrators) in charge; Sarabhai vision to engage  international partnership as an initial stepping stone; UR Rao initiated new purchasing processes to bypass government red-tape) to meet tight timelines when building India’s first satellite Aryabhata;  and thousands of bright, dedicated and competent ISRO employees who rolled up their sleeves and took on ambitious goals in the complete absence of infrastructure, resources and experience.

When faced with challenges of building launch vehicles, satellites and the ground infrastructure to support them, getting the job done had the priority. Record keeping for archives did not. ISRO has been particularly slow to recognise this loss for future generations. State secrecy is unnecessarily invoked to limit and prohibit publication. invoked  As happens around the world, the culture of state secrecy is used to hide incompetence or embarrassment rather than legitimate state secrets. Consequently, publications such as this become an important source of information that is not available elsewhere. Both the current and previous ISRO chairmen are to be commended in nurturing and making this book possible.

Bhabha and Sarabhai understood the importance of international collaboration and had the international connections and charisma to invoke engagement. Without the assistance of foreign nations, particularly, the USSR, USA and France India would probably not have its space program in the current form but a mere shadow of what it actually has today. All the contributions are from Indian contributors with the exception of  a special but short contribution from Jacques Blamont from France and an incidental interview transcript of an Arnold Frutkin interview as part of the NASA Oral history program from 2012. It is customary in any book review to identify some shortcomings.  Since international collaboration has been central to ISRO’s progress over the decades, there could have been more international representation. Certainly, the absence of a USSR/Russian contribution is conspicuous. This book would also have been an ideal place to capture more original images perhaps sourced from the private collections of the contributors.

One of Carl Sagan’s many quotes goes like this “In all the history of mankind, there will only one generation that will be first to explore the Solar System”. Here he highlights the chance nature of events that happen for the first time in human history and coincide with our time on earth. Abdul Kalam who played a key role in ISRO  developing India’s first rocket capable of placing a satellite in orbit (SLV-3) died in  July 2015. In January 2016  Vasant Gowariker  who among his many contributions helped develop ISRO’s solid propellent infrastructure. The publication of “From a Fishing Hamlet to the Red Planet: India’s Space Journey” is timely. It is a detailed account from the ever decreasing group of individual who were part of that journey.